Medibmls
Provider of International Standards, and of Biomedical Products and Services
Provider of International Standards, and of Biomedical Products and Services
Clotting Factors
Essay sample: Whole blood
Essay description and associated physiology
The clotting proteins respond to blood vessel injury in a chain of events. The intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of secondary haemostasis are a series of reactions regarding the substrate protein fibrinogen, the clotting factors (as well acknowledged as enzyme precursors or zymogens), nonenzymatic cofactors (Ca2+), and phospholipids. The factors were assigned Roman numerals in the order of their discovery, not their place in the clotting sequence. Factor VI was originally thought to be a separate clotting factor. It was subsequently proved to be the same as an altered form of Factor V, and therefore the number is no longer used. The clotting factors are constituted in the liver. They could be divided into three groups based on their common properties: 1. The contact group is activated in vitro by a surface such as glass and is activated in vivo by collagen. The contact group includes factor XI, factor XII, prekallikrein, and eminent-molecular- weight kininogen. 2. The prothrombin or vitamin K-dependent group includes factors II, VII, IX, and X. 3. The fibrinogen group includes factors I, V, VIII, and XIII. They are the most labile of the factors and are consumed during the clotting process.
What are the denotations?
Identify the attendance of inherited bleeding disorders
Identify the attendance of qualitative or quantitative factor insufficiency
What does the essay result mean?
The normal reference value: from 50% to 150%.
The result is diminished in:
More information
Essay results of patients on anticoagulant therapy are unreliable.
Placement of tourniquet for longer than 1 min could result in venous stasis and interchanges in the concentration of plasma proteins to be measured. Thrombocyte activation might as well happen under these conditions, inducing erroneous results.
Vascular injury during phlebotomy could activate platelets and clotting factors, inducing erroneous results.
Cold Agglutinin Titer
Metonym: Mycoplasma serology
Essay sample: Serum
Essay description and associated physiology
Cold agglutinins are antibodies that render clumping or agglutination of red blood cells at cold temperatures in persons with certain conditions or who are infected by particular organisms. Cold agglutinins are associated with Mycoplasma pneumoniae contagion. M. pneumoniae has I antigen specificity to human red blood cell membranes. Foetal cells largely contain I antigens, but by 18 mo most cells carry the I antigen. The agglutinins are ordinarily immune globulin M (IgM) antibodies and render agglutination of cells at temperatures in the range of 0°C to 10°C. The temperature of circularising blood in the extremities might be lower than core temperatures. Red blood cells of impacted persons might agglutinate and obstruct blood vessels in fingers, toes, and ears, or they might initiate the complement cascade. Impacted cells might be lysed instantly within the capillaries and blood vessels as a result of the action of complement on the cell wall, or they might return to the circulatory system and be lysed in the spleen by macrophages. The titer endpoint is the highest dilution of serum that shows a particular antigen-antibody reaction. Single titers greater than 1:64, or a fourfold increment in titer between specimens assembled 5 or more days apart, are clinically important. Patients impacted with principal atypical viral pneumonia exhibit a rise in titer 8 to 10 days after the onset of sickness. IgM antibodies peak in 12 to 25 days and start to diminish 30 days after onset.
What are the denotations?
Support in the confirmation of principal atypical pneumonia, influenza, or pulmonary embolus
Provide additional diagnostic support for cold agglutinin disease associated with viral contagions or lymphoreticular cancers
What does the essay result mean?
The normal reference value:
Negative: single titer less than 1:32 or less than a fourfold increment in titer over serial samples.
The result is expanded in:
More information
Antibiotic use might interpose with or reduce antibody creation.
An eminent antibody titer might interpose with blood typing and crossmatching procedures.
Eminent titers might appear spontaneously in elderly patients and persist for numerous years.
Collagen Cross-Linked N-Telopeptide
Metonym: NTx
Essay sample: Urine
Essay description and associated physiology
Osteoporosis is the most common bone disease in the West. It is oftentimes named the silent disease because bone loss happens without symptoms. The constitution and sustenance of bone mass are dependent on a combining of factors that comprise genetics, nutrition, exercise, and hormone function. Commonly, the rate of bone constitution is equal to the rate of bone resorption. After midlife, the rate of bone loss starts to increment. Osteoporosis is more commonly identified in women than in men. Other jeopardy factors comprise thin, small-scale-framed body structure; family history of osteoporosis; diet low-pitched in calcium; white or Asian race; extravagant use of alcohol; cigarette smoking; sedentary lifestyle; semipermanent use of corticosteroids, thyroid replacement medications, or antiepileptics; history of bulimia, anorexia nervosa, chronic liver disease, or malabsorption disorders; and postmenopausal state. Osteoporosis is a principal consequence of menopause in women owing to the decline of oestrogen creation. Osteoporosis is rare in premenopausal women. Oestrogen replacement therapy (after menopause) is one strategy that has been commonly employed to forestall osteoporosis, although its exact protective mechanism is not known. Results of some recently published studies suggest that there might be important adverse side impacts to oestrogen replacement therapy; more research is needed to understand the semipermanent impacts (positive and negative) of this therapy. Other treatments comprise raloxifene (selectively modulates oestrogen receptors), calcitonin (interacts directly with osteoclasts), and bisphosphates (inhibit osteoclast-mediated bone resorption). A noninvasive essay to notice the attendance of collagen cross-linked N-telopeptide (NTx) is used to follow the progress of patients who have begun treatment for osteoporosis. NTx is constituted when collagenase acts on bone. Small-scale NTx fragments are excreted in the urine after bone resorption. A desirable reaction, 2 to 3 months after therapy is initiated, is a 30% reduction in NTx and a reduction of 50% below baseline by 12 months.
What are the denotations?
Support in the evaluation of osteoporosis
Support in the management and treatment of osteoporosis
Supervise impacts of oestrogen replacement therapy
What does the essay result mean?
The normal reference value could be found on the lab report.
The result is expanded in:
Hyperparathyroidism (Imbalance in calcium and phosphorus that impacts the rate of bone resorption)
Osteomalacia (expanded bone turnover associated with faulty bone mineralization)
Osteoporosis (expanded bone turnover)
Paget’s disease (expanded bone resorption; more calcium coming out of bone than being returned)
The result is diminished in:
Effective therapy for osteoporosis
More information
NTx levels are impacted by urinary excretion, and values might be influenced by the attendance of renal damage or disease.
Essay sample: Whole blood
Essay description and associated physiology
The clotting proteins respond to blood vessel injury in a chain of events. The intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of secondary haemostasis are a series of reactions regarding the substrate protein fibrinogen, the clotting factors (as well acknowledged as enzyme precursors or zymogens), nonenzymatic cofactors (Ca2+), and phospholipids. The factors were assigned Roman numerals in the order of their discovery, not their place in the clotting sequence. Factor VI was originally thought to be a separate clotting factor. It was subsequently proved to be the same as an altered form of Factor V, and therefore the number is no longer used. The clotting factors are constituted in the liver. They could be divided into three groups based on their common properties: 1. The contact group is activated in vitro by a surface such as glass and is activated in vivo by collagen. The contact group includes factor XI, factor XII, prekallikrein, and eminent-molecular- weight kininogen. 2. The prothrombin or vitamin K-dependent group includes factors II, VII, IX, and X. 3. The fibrinogen group includes factors I, V, VIII, and XIII. They are the most labile of the factors and are consumed during the clotting process.
What are the denotations?
Identify the attendance of inherited bleeding disorders
Identify the attendance of qualitative or quantitative factor insufficiency
What does the essay result mean?
The normal reference value: from 50% to 150%.
The result is diminished in:
- Inborn insufficiency
- Disseminated intravascular clotting (Factors are consumed as component of the clotting cascade)
- Liver disease (numerous clotting factors are synthesised by the liver)
More information
Essay results of patients on anticoagulant therapy are unreliable.
Placement of tourniquet for longer than 1 min could result in venous stasis and interchanges in the concentration of plasma proteins to be measured. Thrombocyte activation might as well happen under these conditions, inducing erroneous results.
Vascular injury during phlebotomy could activate platelets and clotting factors, inducing erroneous results.
Cold Agglutinin Titer
Metonym: Mycoplasma serology
Essay sample: Serum
Essay description and associated physiology
Cold agglutinins are antibodies that render clumping or agglutination of red blood cells at cold temperatures in persons with certain conditions or who are infected by particular organisms. Cold agglutinins are associated with Mycoplasma pneumoniae contagion. M. pneumoniae has I antigen specificity to human red blood cell membranes. Foetal cells largely contain I antigens, but by 18 mo most cells carry the I antigen. The agglutinins are ordinarily immune globulin M (IgM) antibodies and render agglutination of cells at temperatures in the range of 0°C to 10°C. The temperature of circularising blood in the extremities might be lower than core temperatures. Red blood cells of impacted persons might agglutinate and obstruct blood vessels in fingers, toes, and ears, or they might initiate the complement cascade. Impacted cells might be lysed instantly within the capillaries and blood vessels as a result of the action of complement on the cell wall, or they might return to the circulatory system and be lysed in the spleen by macrophages. The titer endpoint is the highest dilution of serum that shows a particular antigen-antibody reaction. Single titers greater than 1:64, or a fourfold increment in titer between specimens assembled 5 or more days apart, are clinically important. Patients impacted with principal atypical viral pneumonia exhibit a rise in titer 8 to 10 days after the onset of sickness. IgM antibodies peak in 12 to 25 days and start to diminish 30 days after onset.
What are the denotations?
Support in the confirmation of principal atypical pneumonia, influenza, or pulmonary embolus
Provide additional diagnostic support for cold agglutinin disease associated with viral contagions or lymphoreticular cancers
What does the essay result mean?
The normal reference value:
Negative: single titer less than 1:32 or less than a fourfold increment in titer over serial samples.
The result is expanded in:
- Infective mononucleosis
- Malaria
- M. pneumoniae (principal atypical pneumonia)
- Multiple myeloma
- Raynaud’s disease (grievous)
- Systemic lupus erythematosus
- Trypanosomiasis
More information
Antibiotic use might interpose with or reduce antibody creation.
An eminent antibody titer might interpose with blood typing and crossmatching procedures.
Eminent titers might appear spontaneously in elderly patients and persist for numerous years.
Collagen Cross-Linked N-Telopeptide
Metonym: NTx
Essay sample: Urine
Essay description and associated physiology
Osteoporosis is the most common bone disease in the West. It is oftentimes named the silent disease because bone loss happens without symptoms. The constitution and sustenance of bone mass are dependent on a combining of factors that comprise genetics, nutrition, exercise, and hormone function. Commonly, the rate of bone constitution is equal to the rate of bone resorption. After midlife, the rate of bone loss starts to increment. Osteoporosis is more commonly identified in women than in men. Other jeopardy factors comprise thin, small-scale-framed body structure; family history of osteoporosis; diet low-pitched in calcium; white or Asian race; extravagant use of alcohol; cigarette smoking; sedentary lifestyle; semipermanent use of corticosteroids, thyroid replacement medications, or antiepileptics; history of bulimia, anorexia nervosa, chronic liver disease, or malabsorption disorders; and postmenopausal state. Osteoporosis is a principal consequence of menopause in women owing to the decline of oestrogen creation. Osteoporosis is rare in premenopausal women. Oestrogen replacement therapy (after menopause) is one strategy that has been commonly employed to forestall osteoporosis, although its exact protective mechanism is not known. Results of some recently published studies suggest that there might be important adverse side impacts to oestrogen replacement therapy; more research is needed to understand the semipermanent impacts (positive and negative) of this therapy. Other treatments comprise raloxifene (selectively modulates oestrogen receptors), calcitonin (interacts directly with osteoclasts), and bisphosphates (inhibit osteoclast-mediated bone resorption). A noninvasive essay to notice the attendance of collagen cross-linked N-telopeptide (NTx) is used to follow the progress of patients who have begun treatment for osteoporosis. NTx is constituted when collagenase acts on bone. Small-scale NTx fragments are excreted in the urine after bone resorption. A desirable reaction, 2 to 3 months after therapy is initiated, is a 30% reduction in NTx and a reduction of 50% below baseline by 12 months.
What are the denotations?
Support in the evaluation of osteoporosis
Support in the management and treatment of osteoporosis
Supervise impacts of oestrogen replacement therapy
What does the essay result mean?
The normal reference value could be found on the lab report.
The result is expanded in:
Hyperparathyroidism (Imbalance in calcium and phosphorus that impacts the rate of bone resorption)
Osteomalacia (expanded bone turnover associated with faulty bone mineralization)
Osteoporosis (expanded bone turnover)
Paget’s disease (expanded bone resorption; more calcium coming out of bone than being returned)
The result is diminished in:
Effective therapy for osteoporosis
More information
NTx levels are impacted by urinary excretion, and values might be influenced by the attendance of renal damage or disease.
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